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United States is currently the reserve asset and print currency that pertains to the value of the gold, so a person can exchange there currency for gold or gold for currency but it will be based on the specific value per unit. As stated by Bordo, "The gold standard was a commitment by participating countries to fix the prices of their domestic currencies in terms of a specified amount of gold. National money and other forms of money (bank deposits and notes) were freely converted into gold at the fixed price." (Bordo, 2002)World's Foreign Exchange Markets.The world's foreign exchange markets as stated by Miliaresis, "As time goes on, one market tends to keep on getting more and more attention
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shorting the forward the investor has agreed to sell 1 GBP for $1.50. If at expiration the exchange
rate declines to $1.49/GBP the investor would make a profit of $0.01/GBP since he is able to sell
each pound for $1.50 instead of the market rate of $1.49 at expiration. The total profit for the
contract would be GBP 100,000 x $0.01/GBP = $1,000.
Conversely, if at expiration the exchange rate increases to $1.52/GBP the investor would make a loss
of $0.02/GBP since he has to sell each pound for $1.50 instead of the market rate of $1.52 at
expiration. The total loss for the contract would be GBP 100,000 x $0.02/GBP = $2,000.
Notice shorting (or selling a forward) is like betting the underlying
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existing unlimited loss. During the time of payment, the company chooses whether to exercise its option and pay and the agreed rate or pay at the current market price. It helps to maintain the value of its assets at their value.
Thirdly, forward contracts, forward contracts represent agreements between two parties to trade an asset such as stocks or a currency pair in the future at a particular time price. The parties come to a consensus on the future value of the asset which will not be affected by prevailing economic conditions. It means the exchange rate today is locked. It is helpful to avoid increasing the cost of foreign currency exchange in the future.
It is the way to shift the credit risk
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Table of Contents
Introduction.......3
The Three Phases of Monetary Integration........4
ERM II......... 4
Maastricht Convergence Criteria.........6
Threats and Opportunities for the New States Joining the Euro.......8
Target Dates for Euro Adoption
9
The Convergence Issue
12
Real vs. Nominal Convergence
12
Conclusions
13
Bibliography
14
Appendix
15
5-Year Perspective on the 10 States' Currencies against the Euro
15
Cyprus Pound (CYP) foreign exchange rate
15
Latvian Lats (lVl) foreign exchange rate
15
Maltese Lira (MTL
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a firm adopts exporting to be a primary method for expansion of foreign market, one of the main risks it has to be faced with is mismatch of currency of firm's cash inflow and cash outflow. Cost and revenue are derived from different denominations, once the main currency in home country strengthens, income created by host country's currency might no longer cover costs. To the contrary, FDI makes sure all costs and revenue are derived from the same currency. Thus, it reduces risk arisen by foreign exchange.5. Avoidance of consumer-imposed restrictions. In some countries, there are not only trade barrier imposed by government, but also limitations imposed by consumers. Take South Korea as a
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International Trade is the branch of economics concerned with the exchange of goods and services with foreign countries. In the context of globalization, International trade has become an even more important topic now that so many countries have begun to move from state-run to market-driven economies. Tariff and non-tariff barriers play a large part in this process.Tariff BarriersTariffs are among the oldest forms of government economic intervention. They are most commonly used as taxes on imports into a country or region. They are put into practice for two clear economic purposes. They provide revenue for the government and they improve economic returns to firms and suppliers to domestic
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410 critical review:
The world price of home bias
Cost of capital refers to cost of equity capital.
Control for traditional risk proxies, country-specific characteristics and availability of market substitutions.
Measure home bias by looking at how domestic mutual funds in different countries allocate their equity portfolios between domestic and foreign stocks.
Analysis would be more accurate if they were based on individual and institutional investors, however mutual funds are a popular vehicle for investing.
Advances on existing literature:
They perform direct tests of home-bias effects on the cost of capital of a country and the tests allow them to quantify the magnitude of the costs of
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regulate the minimum price of a products for protect local companies (Rugman & Collinson, 2009). For instance, if a particular type of PC is sold by $1000, local companies cost $700 to produce it, but foreign companies cost $500 to produce it. Then foreign competitors can price the unit at $600 to drive out local companies. So the government decide the minimum price for both local companies and foreign companies all survival in the market (Rugman & Collinson, 2009). Also the market diversity is an important dimension. Obviously, some particular products may be heavily demanded in some regions but not sell good in other regions. As to currency fluctuation, which always add to the cost
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sentiments that are not fully justified by information." [Shleifer and Summers, 23]Time Value of MoneyIn a long term perspective, stock markets are expected to play several key roles. First, spreading the risks of long-term investment projects. The growth of stock markets can lead to a lower cost of equity capital and thereby stimulate investment and growth. Second, by imposing a degree of control over the investment behavior of companies through continuous monitoring of their share prices and thereby of the implied possibility of merger and takeover, stock markets can contribute to more efficient investment. Thirdly, by attracting foreign portfolio flows thus the expansion of stock market can
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(electronic cash, travellers' cheques, stored value cards etc.) conducted by Payments Systems Board Banker to banks - it holds banks' exchange settlement accounts (used to settle debts between banks). It is also a banker in the sense that it is used to buy/sell govt. securities to financial institutions, known as open market operations. Holds reserve of foreign currency/gold - used to make international payments and in the FOREX market Government banker and economic advisor for the government - govt. lodges excess funds and obtains funds (through treasury bills) in RBA and raises short term and long term loans (pays interest on these). The RBA's assessments on the state of the
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, stable rate of inflation. The Reserve Bank’s target is ____________ annual increase in the CPI, as a low level of inflation indicates growth in the economy. The government’s aim is to remove cost-push inflationary pressures within the economy, which has been achieved through _________________________________________________.
External stability refers to the current account deficit (CAD), exchange rate and foreign debt. With the CAD, the government’s objective is to restrict the size of the CAD, preferably within 5% of GDP. The government’s objective with the exchange rate is to achieve a stable exchange rate that does not exhibit wild appreciations or depreciations in the short term. A
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an equally strong willingness to accept foreign influence. This has set the stage for global efforts towards a balancing act between public and private control over its economy. Although the communist government in Vietnam attempted to gain an "isolationalist" approach to economics, it has continually veered towards an economically integrated market on the global stage[2].2.0: Development of economical policy structureIn the early years the economy was guided by a five-year development plan that corresponded to the Soviet and Eastern European planning cycle. During the 1970's emphasis moved from heavy industry to agriculture and light industry in order to improve material living standards
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cultural exchange. It helps to increase the production of goods and services.
- Globalisation has been taking place for hundreds of years, but has speeded up enormously over the last half-century.
- Globalisation has resulted in increased international trade, a company operating in more than one country, greater dependence on the global economy and free movement of capital, goods, and services.
Advantage
1. Increase in economy of scales
- Through globalization, When countries are specialized in producing the goods and services where they have a comparative advantage in producing at lowest opportunity cost, the fixed cost would be lower when there is high amount of goods and services are being
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: Industry Attractiveness (IA), Environmental Stability (IS), Competitive advantage (CA), and Financial Strength (FS)[footnoteRef:4]. These variables define the Offensive or Defensive behavior of companies in the global market. Financial strength and high industry attractiveness level make foreign markets appealing for global companies and foster foreign investments. Conversely, environmental instability and the inability to compete force companies to leave the market and look for new opportunities. For example, Russia only a few years ago was a cornerstone of General Motors' global growth strategy in developing markets, and now it has fallen apart. After the announcement that foreign
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the time) people were forced to use their reserves in foreign
currency, so the flow of American dollars in the market grew enormously and allowed the central
bank to increase their reserves of it.
With the augmented dollar reserves in the central bank, Menem, along with his new minister
of economy Domingo Cavallo implemented the conversion plan, to take the currency back to pesos.
With the conversion law implemented in 1992, the central bank was in charge of securing the
exchange rate of 10,000 Australes for one American dollar, and the new Argentine peso was set at
price parity of one by one with the dollar.
Inflation came near to cero, most of the public companies like national zoos
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right to use a foreign company's patents, trademarks, and technology for a specified period of time in exchange for a fee. This low-risk agreement requires little in the way of investment and is a good alternative when restrictions prohibit other market ventures. It also avoids tariffs and quotas. Considerations include whether there is sufficient trademark and patent protection, the quality of previous dealings with the host country, and the possibility of the licensee turning into a competitor.c) Contract manufacturing- this is a common means to take advantage of cheap labor overseas and requires little capital investment. The goods are then shipped back to the foreign company for sale or can
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one of the New York stock exchange. What you see is many people just standing there, it is hard to see the faces on the people but if you could there would not be any smiles of anyone. Most of the faces would show anger and stress of the loss of millions on the stock exchange. Edwin Gay Said “Stock values were pyramided again and again as they soared to heights out of all rational relationship to earnings present or prospective.”(Gay July 1932) Many bought into stocks not knowing the market was going to collapse and losing all of their money to the market.
During the Great Depression there were many strikes and demonstrations. The photo that sticks out the most is the photo of the World
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nations. This results in China developing an unfair advantage regarding trade and
foreign exchange. Michael Klien, chief economist in the Office of International Affairs of
the United States Department of the Treasury, says, “Policymakers and pundits have
pointed out that currency manipulation–the effort to keep exports cheap by intervening
in the foreign exchange market–is the most important issue international economic
policy could address.” This statement proves the severity of this emerging globalization
problem. Currency manipulation is one of the downsides to the debate on globalization,
swaying individuals to argue against the topic.
Another point that teams have been bringing to
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trade
iv. Sets dependable international exchange rates to world currencies
4. China
a. Industrialization
i. Communism and applying market economy ideas
ii. Trade – dependency on foreign markets
iii. Environmental factors
Chapter Ten
5. Forces of Globalization
a. Changes to Commuications technologies
b. Trade – reshaping trade patterns
i. Developing nations beginning to trade with other developing nations.
c. Transportation
i. Containerization
d. Media
i. Advertising encouraging the purchase of goods
6. Mexico
a. Maquiladoras
i. Foreign owned factories within Mexico
ii. Offering jobs to help economy
iii. Jobs abuse lower worker standards and labour laws (women and children)
iv. Impact on
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, amounting to $11 billion" (UNCTAD, 2006: 5).The increasing importance of FDI from these countries reflects stronger ownership advantages of developing-country firms. For instance, "developing countries accounted for over half of global output at purchasing-power parity value in 2005, more than 40 percent of world exports and for two thirds of global foreign exchange reserves" (UNCTAD, 2006: 6). Moreover, in 1986 Turkey was the only developing economy among the 20 most competitive economies and by 2005 there were five additions: Taiwan, Singapore, the Republic of Korea, the United Arab Emirates and Qatar (World Economic Forum 2005; cited in UNCTAD 2006).The emergence of developing countries
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